4.6: Perception: When Our Senses Meet Our Brains

When we're moving quickly in a car while not looking outside at the road whiz Motion, we experience dizziness and nausea.

Donald Norman pointed out that many everyday objects are not designed with users in mind.

They can be hard to figure out how to operate.

Human factors have used their knowledge of sensation and perception to improve the design of many everyday devices.

Many people hold jobs that require them to sit at a computer terminal most of the day.
A new design for a computer screen, keyboard, or mouse that allows them to better reach for their computers or see their screens can increase their efficiency.
Human factors psychologists design computer components, as well as devices that assist surgeons in performing delicate operations, workstations to improve comfort and decrease injuries on the job, and control panels on aircraft carriers, to make them safer and easier to use.
The psychology of human factors reminds us that many of the things we know about sensation and perception can be useful in everyday life.

Track how our minds work.

We'll embark on an exciting voyage into how our minds organize the bits of sensory data into more meaningful concepts now that we've learned how to process sensory information.

Our brain's ability to bring together so much data isn't dependent on what psychologist Donald Norman does in our sensory field.
Our brains work together to understand what's in his office behind a teapot.
Can you tell me what field it is, what was just there a moment ago, and what makes this teapot design a poor memory from our past?

The handle underneath the spout would cause hot tea to pour details in favor of more meaningful representations.

Beneath this bottom-up processing, we construct a whole stimulus from its parts.

A perceiv ambiguous figure tends to produce an object on the basis of its edges.
Bottom-up processing begins with the raw stimuli and ends with the synthesis of them into a meaningful concept.

Top-down processing begins with our beliefs and expectations, which we impose on the raw stimuli we perceive.

Some perception rely more on bottom-up processing and others on top-down processing.

In most cases, the two kinds of processing work together.
We perceive these figures differently depending on our expectations.
Our bottom-up processing would change if we had a top-down expectation of a woman's face.

A decent guess with fewer neu constructed from parts rons is more efficient than an answer with a huge number of neurons.

As cognitive misers, we try to get by with less than we can.

We tend to see the world in a similar way.

Participants were placed in the perceptual set of a young woman after viewing a version of the cartoon exaggerating her features.
Participants were placed in the perceptual set of an old woman by viewing a version of the cartoon exaggerating her features.

Without perceptual constancy, we'd be seeing our worlds as continually changing and we'd be hopelessly confused.

Our brain is able to correct minor changes.

Shapes, sizes, and colors are some of the types of perceptual constancy.
Take a look at a door from different perspectives.

The context makes most of us think of this phrase as "THE BAT".

Her image becomes smaller when she walks away from us.

We don't conclude that our friend is Shrinking or that this is happening.
Our brains enlarge figures far away from us so that they look like objects in the same scene.

It is dependent on the viewer.

The dress in the picture appears to be white and gold for some viewers.
The dress appears to be blue and brown, and to a large number of viewers, blue and white.
"dress color il usion" went viral on the Internet in 2015, and was mentioned in 10 million or so tweets.
Although scientists have different ideas about how to explain the il usion, how the dress looks probably depends on how our brains interpret the colors in the dress in different lighting conditions.
In this case, people can see the world in vastly different colors.

A group of fire fighters are wearing bright yellow jackets.

Take a second to look atSlide 3.

The checkerboard looks like it contains all black and white squares, but they are actually shades of gray.
The A and B squares look at biased pictures to alter their perceptual set.

Dale Purves and colleagues applied the same principle to cubes.

Even though some of the smaller squares look like a young woman or an old one, they are still ferent colors.

The appearance of the same colored dots can be changed by variations in the background color.

Much of our visual perception involves analyzing an image in the context of its surroundings and our expectations.

In 1955, Kanizsa sparked interest in this phenomenon.

The perception of an imaginary shape of a square can be created by a hint of three or four corners.

We see a door as a door whether it is black and white alternating squares or a rectangular shape.

The bridge looks to be of normal dramatic change due to the shadow cast size, but the exact duplicate image by the green cylinder is what we ignore.

It appears in the foreground and looks like A and B squares are the same.

Depending on the surrounding colors, Red Gray can be a color.

The gray squares on the top of the cube are not blue.

The circles at the right are not the same as the circles at the left.

The circles appear green when the background is green, but blue when the background is magenta.

We see a lot of our world as consisting of unified figures or forms because of the Gestalt principles of perception.

The road map for how we make sense of our perceptual worlds is provided by these principles.

We use a variety of principles to help organize the world according to the Kanizsa square.

The middle of the figure is not real because it is based on psychologists.

There are objects that are close to each other that are seen as unified wholes.

Similar objects are more similar than different objects.

We don't perceive anything special if the red and yellow circles are randomly mixed.
We can see rows of circles if the red and yellow circles are lined up.

The cross shown in the picture is one long vertical line crossing over one long horizontal line, rather than four smaller line segments joining together.

Our brains fill in what's missing when partial visual information is present.

The principle of missing information is the same as subjective.
The main illusion in the Kanizsa figures is the Gestalt principle.

We see objects that are symmetrically arranged as wholes more often than objects that aren't.

We make an instantaneous decision to focus on what we believe to be the central figure and ignore what we believe to be the background.

Rubin's vase illusion can be viewed in two different ways.
We can ignore the background if the vase is the figure.
There is an image in the background that shows two faces looking at each other.

There are limits to how quickly we can shift from one view to another when looking at bistable images.

The Dalmatian dog is in the picture.
Continue to stare at the black-and-white image until the dog shows up.
It's worth the wait.

Face recognition is important to our ability to navigate our social worlds and follow the plot of a movie.

Nonhuman primate can recognize faces.

There is an image of a dog in this picture.

Humans don't need a picture of a face to recognize it.

Caricature artists have for a long time capitalized on this fact and made fun of us with their drawings of famous faces, usually with exaggerated features.
Our brains fill in the rest for us, so we can recognize wacky faces.

The way in which Face recognition is remarkable is captured in this photo.

It's helpful to look at cases of peo integrated wholes to understand how facial recognition works.

Most of us can identify familiar faces in a fraction of a second.

freckles, weight, eyeglasses, and clothing are some of the nonfacial cues that Prosopagnosics need to rely on.

They can't recognize parents and spouses from their facial features.

Their impairment in recognition can be present at birth, but it's more likely to be a result of brain trauma, stroke, or neurological disease.
It's restricted to the face, rather than to stimuli or objects in general.

The ability to see a face as a whole is important to face recognition.

People who are good at recognizing faces are more likely to be good at processing faces as a whole.
The fact that many people with prosopagnosia lack the ability to process facial features holistically implies that this type of processing explains both impaired and normal face recognition.
Chuck Close is an American artist who claims to have prosopagnosia.
He has a hard time processing human faces in his portraits because he has thousands of dots.

The bio logical bases of face recognition have recently been discovered by researchers.

Prosopagnosia can cause the connections and number of fibers of white matter in the brain to be compromised.
Neural communication is disrupted and face processing is disrupted when this problem occurs.

Prosopagnosia is an example of the limits of the brain.

Despite countless opportunities to learn to recognize the faces of friends and loved ones, facial recognition impairments persist over a lifetime.

The human hippocampus is home to neurons that fire in response to celebrity faces.

Jerry Lettvin proposed that each neuron could store a single memory, like the recollection of our grandmother sitting in our living room when we were children.

It could be easily faked.

Many other brain regions probably chime in, even though individual cells may respond.

We don't know what the rest of the brain is doing because researchers only make recordings from a small number of neurons.

Does a simple explanation fit?

We couldn't cross the street without a car because we couldn't see the motion of the car coming towards us.

We can see motion when it's not there.

The lights are moving from one spot to another.

The phi phenomenon shows that our perception of what's moving and what's not is based on partial information, with our brains taking their best guesses about Figure 4.29 Perceiving Motion.

If you want to see the plus sign in the middle of the figure, move your face closer to the screen and away from it.

When you reverse the direction in which you move your face, the two rings should move in opposite directions.

This is one of our favorite movements.

The green-yel ow strips appear to flow as you look at the image.
The il usory motion is caused by tiny eye movements that occurvoluntarily as you stare at the image.

What's missing is Sensation and Perception.

Many of these guesses are accurate enough for us to get along in everyday life.

Motion blindness is a serious disorder in which patients can't string still images processed by their brains into the perception of ongoing motion.

Motion perception is similar to creating a movie in our heads.
The illusory perception of motion is created by the 24 frames of still photos per second in actual movies.
Many of the "frames" are missing in patients with motion blindness.
Many simple tasks, like crossing the street, are interfered with by this disability.
Imagine a car that appears to be 100 feet away and then suddenly jumping to only 1 foot away a second or two later.
The experience would be frightening.
Life inside isn't much better.
The person doesn't see the cup filling up so pouring a cup of coffee can be difficult.
It's empty before it's overflowing with coffee on the floor.

We need to know how close we are to objects in our environment.

We can see three dimensions with one eye.

All things being equal, more distant objects look smaller than closer objects.

As objects move further away, the texture of objects becomes less apparent.

One object blocks our view of another object.

We know which object is closer or farther away because of this fact.

Artists exploit the fact that the outlines of rooms converge as distance increases.

The lines in parallel never meet, but they do meet at great distances.
figures that break physical laws have more than one vanishing point.

Nearer objects tend to be lower in a scene.

The shadows cast by objects give us a sense of their form.

Those far away seem to travel at the same speed as nearby objects.

When we're moving, motion parallax works as well.

When we look out of the windows of a moving car, we'll see that stationary objects pass us quicker than objects farther away.

This photo shows the vanishing point, the differences in speed and the approximate distances from us.

Can you tell me about Binocular Cues?

If we had both eyes, the vanishing point of our two visual fields would be the same.
Half of the axons cross to the other side parallel lines in the photo and the other half stay on the same side before entering the brain.

The basis of binocular depth perception is formed by these comparisons.

Our left and right eyes see the same things, but they transmit different information for near and distant objects.

To demonstrate this cue, close one of your eyes and hold a pen up about a foot away from your face, lining the top of it up with a distant point on the wall.
While alternating which of your eyes is open, hold the pen steady.

There is a scene that provides monocular cues to depth.

The house is drawn as high as the fence post, but we know the house is much bigger, so it must be considerably farther away.

The grasses in front of the fence are drawn as individual blades, but those in the field behind are shown with almost no detail.

Gisela Leibold can't detect motion.

She might miss important information because the tree at the corner of the house is blocking part of the house.

Our brains use information from each eye to judge depth.

Our brains use information from our eyes to estimate distance.

As we learn to crawl, we can judge depth.

A table and floor covered in a checkered cloth are typical of a visual cliff.
A clear glass surface extends from the table out over the floor, creating the appearance of a sudden drop.
Babies between 6 and 14 months of age are hesitant to crawl over the glass elevated several feet above the floor.
The visual cliff shows that depth cues present soon after birth are probably partly innate.

Localizing sounds is an important part of the process.

Brain centers are used to translate sounds into our bodies.
The cells on the same side of the brain are connected to some of the axons on the other side of the brain.
Information from both ears can reach the same structures in the brain stem.
The brain stem of the two sources of information is slightly out of sync.

There are sound sources in Figure 4.30.

There is a loud to judge depth.

The ear farthest away is in a sound shadow, which is created by our head.

A lot of the time, we rely on binaural cues to detect the source of sounds.

When someone stands to our left, we can figure out where the sounds are coming from.

Sometimes the best way to understand how something works is to see how it doesn't right ear lies in a sound shadow produced work.

We looked at some illusions by the head and shoulders.

We will look at how illusions and other unusual phenomena shed light on everyday perception.

There are many explanations for the illusion, but none is universally accepted.

We can easily refute this hypothesis.

Let's Path of sound to near ear contrast this misconception with a few better explanations.

Errors in perceived distance are the reason for the moon's illu Sound sion.

There is an important alternative some 240,000 miles away.

When the moon is near the horizon, we can see it next to things we know to be far away.

The moon is larger because we know it is large.
We're mistaken about the threedimensional space in which we live, along with the moon.
Many people think that the sky is shaped like a flattened dome, which leads them to see the moon farther away from the horizon than at the top of the sky.

The room is distorted and the walls are slanted.

The Ames room makes large and small people look impossibly small.

The ceiling and floor are at an incline.

In the Ames room, if you put two people of the same size in it, they will look like a giant person on the side of the room where the ceiling is lower, and a tiny person on the side of the room where the ceiling is higher.
The illusion is caused by the relative size principle.
The key to the illusion is the height of the ceiling, and the other distortions in the room are only necessary to make the room appear normal to the observer.

In the Ponzo il usion, also called the railroad tracks il usion, a line of identical length appears when it ends in a set of arrowheads pointing inward.

The object closer to the lines is larger.

Our brain assumes that the object is closer to the lines, and different cultures have different reactions to the Mul.

The Zulu live in huts and plow their fields.

The horizontal- vertical illusion causes us to see a circle of an upside-down "T" as larger than the horizontal part.

Some scientists have recently come to the conclusion that participants' grasp remains on target, despite studies showing that they have to reach for the center circle.

There are many examples of our ability to be cognitive misers.

Many of the inputs to which we're exposed unconsciously can be processed to save attention.
Many of our actions occur with little or no thought.
If we had to think carefully before we spoke, typed, or steered our car, our lives would grind to a halt.

We don't direct our attention consciously to these activities, yet we constantly adjust to the flow of sensory experience.

On a Sunday afternoon, you're sitting on the couch watching a movie.

Within a few minutes, you can see a few flashes of light on the screen.
You have an uncontrollable desire to eat a cheeseburger a few minutes later.

The perception below the level of conscious awareness is the processing of sensory information.

Researchers typically present a word or photograph very quickly to study the threshold of conscious awareness subliminal perception.
A pattern of dots or lines blocks out the subliminal stimuli that they follow immediately.
Researchers deem subliminal when participants can't correctly identify the content of the stimuli.

In one study, researchers subliminally presented participants with words such as church, saint, and preacher, and then provided them with an opportunity to cheat on a different task.

None of the participants who subliminally received religious words cheated, compared with 20 percent of those who subliminally received neutral, non religious words.
When participants become aware of or even suspect attempts to influence them subliminally, the effects of subliminal information are usually very short-lived.

Subliminally presented words related to thirst, such as "drink," may slightly influence how much people drink, but specific words related to brand names, such as "cola," don't influence beverage choice.

They are said to contain subliminal messages designed to influence our behavior or emotions.

Studies show that subliminal self-help tapes are not effective.
Even though there is no evidence to support improvement, those who listen to them believe they have improved.

The rock band Judas Priest was put on trial in 1990 for the suicide of a teenager and the attempted suicide of another person.

The boys heard the words "Do it" and were told that Gore's plan was bad because it was backward.
The prosecution said that the reversed message led the boys even if viewers were subliminally told to shoot themselves.
The members of Judas Priest were acquitted in the end.

The life-changing self-help tools are easy to use in the privacy of your own home and can perform miracles because they send messages to your unconscious mind to influence your actions and attitudes.

A few days ago, you read a sci-fi novel about how a ruthless leader used devious methods to get around the effects of their messages.

We can manipulate a colony of humans to do his bidding on a planet in a subliminal way, based on past research.
The plot was far-fetched, but it wasn't effective, contrary to the claims in the ad.

More than one million people have discovered the power of researchers to evaluate the effectiveness of the DVDs, as our DVDs, and you can too.

You can browse our long list of DVDs tailored advertised, and the exact role of subliminal messages, by to address what you need now.
The subliminal messages in some of the DVDs will improve your life.
You may not notice any changes immediately, but you can compare their effectiveness with the DVDs after a few weeks, with the confidence that increases with each message.
If the DVDs did not produce a positive passing day, you will probably not recognize your old self in the effects, and if differences failed to surface as a function of ror.
Fueled with subliminal power, you'll learn to lose weight, conquer your fears, and even claim that subliminal persuasion works.

Don't take our word for it, Andrew from Atlanta said, "Your DVDs are 4."

There's no evidence that the claim is derived from research open mind, but to insist on compeling evidence before accepting using the DVDs advertised.

We should be skeptical of their claims.

Consider the six principles of scientific thinking.

As you evaluate this claim, you will see extraordinary claims.

Important alternative explanations haven't been excluded despite scientists failing to document their ability.

Scientists have failed to document the ability of sublimi number of people who purchase a product to give any evidence about the effectiveness of the product.

The placebo effect might be at play if changes are visible while using anecdotal and timonial evidence.
The tomer isn't enough to conclude that the product works.

People may be more aware of positive 6 if they see a DVD.

Simple explanations for any positive changes.

Consumers may come if people purchase the DVDs when they're particuled with the DVDs center on placebo effects, with the mere passage of time and with the observation and attention to positive changes and advent of positive life experiences.

There is no scientific support for the extraordinary claim.

Life changes can be produced by Correlation vs. Causation.

We don't know if personal changes could be tested or not.

There are simpler explanations for the DVDs that are associated with them, as the ad doesn't describe the controlled research associated with the advertised DVDs.

There are 161 messages that can do that.

In some cases, extraordinary claims are just that.

A set of ESP research stimuli was used by Rhine.

He asked participants to guess which card would appear, which card another participant had in mind, and which card was hidden from view.

Rhine initially reported positive results, as his participants averaged about 7 correct Zener card identifications per deck of 25, where 5 cards would be chance performance.

ESP research has been hampered by the fact that other investigators couldn't duplicate Rhine's findings.

Scientists pointed out flaws in Rhine's methods.

The backs of some Zener cards were so worn down that participants could see the symbols on them.
Scientists found that Rhine and his colleagues hadn't properly randomized the attempting to receive images from a order of the cards, rendering his analyses meaningless.
The sensory field he used for research dried up.

The govern to detect weak ESP signals.

A person tries to transmit a picture to another person while another person reports mental images that come to mind.

The participant rates the pictures on a scale of 1 to 10 for how well they match the mental imagery experienced.
The sender tried to send one picture to the other.

The studies found that the size of the effects was 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- 888-609- Other ESP paradigms have not been up to par.

According to research conducted more than three decades ago, people could mentally transmit images to dreaming individuals.
These results couldn't be duplicated later.

Can the results be duplicated?

In many psychology studies, researchers have found that when participants rehearse words, their recall is improved relative to non-studied words.

This finding would throw a monkey wrench into the idea that people can see into the future and affect their previous responses.
This is what Bem found.

Future events seemed to predict past behaviors.

Before Bem's study was published in a prestigious psychology journal, it set ablaze a firestorm of criticism based on methodological and statistical concerns.

Scientists at three different universities jumped at the chance to duplicate Bem's memory rehearsal study, which claimed to provide the strongest evidence of all for reverse causality.

There was no recall difference between studied and non studied words.

Although a recent meta-analysis of 90 experiments provided statistical support for Bem's claims, many scientists remain extremely skeptical and suspect that the positive results are due to publication bias--the tendency of journals to not publish failures to replicate previous findings.

It will be important to figure out why some studies don't repeat Bem's findings.
The commonsense view of causes preceding effects is not in danger at the moment.
The lack of an "experimental recipe" that yields replicable results across independent laboratories is highlighted by the many non-replications of ESP findings.

ESP proponents have come up with hypotheses to explain away negative findings without scientific evidence.

The skepticism of the experimenters has been blamed for the failures to replicate Bem.
It is worse than chance performance on ESP tasks.

The claims about ESP are very difficult to make.

People believe in ESP.

ESP is not matched by equally extraordinary evidence.

There was a replicability car accident.

Can the results be duplicated?

We attend to and recall events that are striking coincidences and ignore or forget events that aren't there; as a result, we perceive a statistical association when it's not there.

Imagine if we were in a new city and thought of an old friend we hadn't seen in a while.
We run into that friend on the street a few hours later.

We forget about the thousands of times we've been in new cities and the old friends we never met.

INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals INRDeals Most of us don't realize how likely certain events are.

Many people respond with answers like 100, or even 1000.

The correct answer is 23.
The chances of us getting up to a group of 60 people are very high.

We may be inclined to attribute coincidences to psychic phenomena.

There is a chance that Psychic Predictions will happen as we reach a group size of 23 people.

Gene Emery has at least 2 people share the same birthday and 50 failed psychic predictions.
He found psychics percent in 2005.
Research shows that most people underestimate the likelihood of coincidences, such as the crash of an airplane into the Egyptian pyramids, and the discovery of a Nazi flag on the moon.

This prediction is open-ended and vague.

Many of them rely on people we've just met that we know all about.

If you want to impress your friends with a cold reading, Table 4.4 contains some tips that we could duplicate with relatively little training.

Cold reading works because we seek meaning in our worlds even when it's not there.

We are reading into the cold as much as the cold reader is reading into us.

You could try it for the fun.

The follow ing demonstration in a large group of friends can be used to convince people you have ESP.
"I want you to think of an odd two-digit number that's less than 50, the only catch is that the two digits must be Table 4.4 Cold-Reading Techniques."

I pick up a lot of different signals, so let the person know that you won't be.

You've recently been struggling with some tough that apply to just about everyone, so start with a stock spiel.

If you want to know more about someone with the letter M or maybe N, pepper your reading with vague information.

You can use a prop.

A crystal ball, set of tarot cards, or horoscope show the impression that you're reading on mystical information.

"I believe you have a piece of clothing, like an old dress characteristics reported by many or even most people."

A traditional dress is indicative of a life history.

I initially thought of 35, but changed my mind.

More than half of people will pick either 37 or 35, which is population stereotypes that can convince many people you possess telepathy.

V1 cells are sensitive to Perception orientations.

A mixture of trichromatic and opponent processing is involved in color perception.

The basic principles apply to all senses.

Transduction is the process of converting external energy into electrical activity within Blindness and is a worldwide problem.

There are several types of color blindness, the most common being red-green.
Even though most connections in the brain are sight, some blind people can make decent faithful to one sense, brain regions respond to guesses about the location of objects in their environments.

To adapt to the challenges of an ever changing environment, sound waves are fun and flexible attention is important.

Yet entered the outer ear.
The three small bones in the middle ear are caused by sensory inputs if we don't pay attention.
vibrate is one of the great mysteries of psychology.
This process creates pressure in the cochlea, which makes it possible to bind different pieces of sensory informa, in which the basilar and organ of Corti are involved.

The hair cells are exciting.

The message can be heard through the visual system nerve.

Pick out the different types of perception.

The basilar hair cells are excited by the images that the lens in the eye focuses on.

The lens opti theory is based on hair cells reproducing the mally focuses light on the retina, which lies at the back of the pitch.
There are rods and cones in the eye.

The axons of the cells in the retina combine to form the optic nerve.

There are different types of visual perception.

Understand how we sense odors and tastes.

Our visual system is sensitive to shape.

Different parts of the visual cortex process different salty, sour, and bitter tastes in the tongue.

Our ability to taste is dependent on smell.
Our noses are sensitive to hundreds of different airborne molecules.
Track how our minds work.

Information travels from primary sensory to secondary sensory, odorless molecule that can affect sexual cortex and then on to association cortexample along the way, per responses.

Balance and expectations influence our perception.

Perceptual constancy allows us to see things in different ways.

The somatosensory system is responsible for face recognition.

Pressure, hot and cold temperature, and tissue damage are how we perceive motion.
When we compare visual frames like those in a movie, we can sense stretch and depth by using both monocular and binocular signals.
The location of our bodies is an important part of locating sounds.
We experience illusions when we're unaware of our sense tion.

There is a large emotional component to pain perception that occurs below the threshold of con not present with touch.

This is because of pain information.
The somatosen old influences over our attitudes, choices, or behaviors are referred to as subliminal persuasion.

The field of human factors starts with what psychologists know about sensation and perception, and how likely it is that a coincidence occurs by chance.

The evi user-friendly devices, like computer keyboards and airplane dence for ESP, are weak and often not replicable across indepen cockpits with this knowledge in mind.